In this chapter the usage of C++ is further explored. The possibility to declare functions in structs is further illustrated using examples. The concept of a class is introduced.

3.1: More extensions of C in C++

3.1.1: The scope operator ::

    #include <stdio.h>

    int
        counter = 50;                   // global variable

    int main()
    {
        for (register int counter = 1;  // this refers to the 
             counter < 10;              // local variable
             counter++)
        {
            printf("%d\n",
                    ::counter           // global variable
                    /                   // divided by
                    counter);           // local variable
        }
        return (0);
    }

In this code fragment the scope operator is used to address a global variable instead of the local variable with the same name. The usage of the scope operator is more extensive than just this, but the other purposes will be described later.

3.1.2: cout, cin and cerr

• cout, analogous to stdout,

  
  

• cin, analogous to stdin,

  
  

• cerr, analogous to stderr.

  
  

Syntactically these streams are not used with functions: instead, data are read from the streams or written to them using the operators <<, called the insertion operator and >>, called the extraction operator. This is illustrated in the example below:

    #include <iostream.h>

    void main()
    {
        int
            ival;
        char
            sval[30];

        cout << "Enter a number:" << endl;
        cin >> ival;
        cout << "And now a string:" << endl;
        cin >> sval;

        cout << "The number is: " << ival << endl 
             << "And the string is: " << sval << endl;
    }            

This program reads a number and a string from the cin stream (usually the keyboard) and prints these data to cout. Concerning the streams and their usage we remark the following:

• The streams are declared in the header file iostream.h.

  
  

• The streams cout, cin and cerr are in fact `objects' of a given class (more on classes later), processing the input and output of a program. Note that the term `object', as used here, means the set of data and functions which defines the item in question.

  
  

• The stream cin reads data and copies the information to variables (e.g., ival in the above example) using the extraction operator >>. We will describe later how operators in C++ can perform quite different actions than what they are defined to do by the language grammar, such as is the case here. We've seen function overloading. In C++ operators can also have multiple definitions, which is called operator overloading.

  
  

• The operators which manipulate cin, cout and cerr (i.e., >> and <<) also manipulate variables of different types. In the above example cout << ival results in the printing of an integer value, whereas cout << "Enter a number" results in the printing of a string. The actions of the operators therefore depend on the type of supplied variables.

  
  

• Special symbolic constants are used for special situations. The termination of a line written by cout is realized by inserting the endl symbol, rather than using the string "\n".

  
  

The streams cin, cout and cerr are not part of C++ grammar sec, as defined in the compiler which parses source files. The streams are part of the definitions in the header file iostream.h. This is comparable to the fact that functions as printf() are not part of the C grammar, but were originally written by people who considered such functions handy and collected them in a run-time library.

Whether a program uses the old-style functions like printf() and scanf() or whether it employs the new-style streams is a matter of taste. Both styles can even be mixed. A number of advantages and disadvantages is given below:

• Compared to the standard C functions printf() and scanf(), the usage of the insertion and extraction operators is more type-safe. The format strings which are used with printf() and scanf() can define wrong format specifiers for their arguments, for which the compiler sometimes can't warn. In contrast, argument checking with cin, cout and cerr is performed by the compiler. Consequently it isn't possible to err by providing an int argument in places where, according to the format string, a string argument should appear.

  
  

• The functions printf() and scanf(), and other functions which use format strings, in fact implement a mini-language which is interpreted at run-time. In contrast, the C++ compiler knows exactly which in- or output action to perform given which argument.

  
  

• The usage of the left-shift and right-shift operators in the context of the streams does illustrate the possibilities of C++. Again, it requires a little getting used to, coming from C, but after that these overloaded operators feel rather comfortably.

  
  

The iostream library has a lot more to offer than just cin, cout and cerr. In chapter 9 iostreams will be covered in greater detail.

3.1.3: The `bool' data type

The type bool represents boolean (logical) values, for which the (now reserved) values true and false may be used. Apart from these reserved values, integral values may also be assigned to variables of type bool, which are implicitly converted to true and false according to the following conversion rules (assume intValue is an int-variable, and boolValue is a bool-variable):

        // from int to bool:
    boolValue = intValue ? true : false;

        // from bool to int:

    intValue = boolValue ? 1 : 0;

    cout << "A true value: "  << true << endl
         << "A false value: " << false << endl;

The bool data type is found in other programming languages as well. Pascal has its type Boolean, and Java has a boolean type. Different from these languages, C++'s type bool acts like a kind of int type: it's primarily a documentation-improving type, having just two values true and false. Actually, these values can be interpreted as enum values for 1 and 0. Doing so would neglect the philosophy behind the bool data type, but nevertheless: assigning true to an int variable neither produces warnings nor errors.

Using the bool-type is generally more intuitively clear than using int. Consider the following prototypes:

        bool exists(char const *fileName);  // (1)
        int  exists(char const *fileName);  // (2)

        if (exists("myfile"))
            cout << "myfile exists";

As a rule of thumb we suggest the following: If a function should inform its caller about the success or failure of its task, let the function return a bool value. If the function should return success or various types of errors, let the function return enum values, documenting the situation when the function returns. Only when the function returns a meaningful integral value (like the sum of two int values), let the function return an int value.

3.1.4: The `wchar_t' data type

Note that a programming language like Java has a data type char that is comparable to C++'s wchar_t type, while Java's byte data type is comparable to C++'s char type. Very convenient....

3.1.5: The keyword const

This keyword is a modifier which states that the value of a variable or of an argument may not be modified. In the below example an attempt is made to change the value of a variable ival, which is not legal:

    int main()
    {
        int const               // a constant int..
            ival = 3;           // initialized to 3

        ival = 4;               // assignment leads
                                // to an error message

        return (0);
    }

This example shows how ival may be initialized to a given value in its definition; attempts to change the value later (in an assignment) are not permitted.

Variables which are declared const can, in contrast to C, be used as the specification of the size of an array, as in the following example:

    int const
        size = 20;
    char
        buf[size];          // 20 chars big

A further usage of the keyword const is seen in the declaration of pointers, e.g., in pointer-arguments. In the declaration

    char const *buf;

buf is a pointer variable, which points to chars. Whatever is pointed to by buf may not be changed: the chars are declared as const. The pointer buf itself however may be changed. A statement as *buf = 'a'; is therefore not allowed, while buf++ is.

In the declaration

    char *const buf;

buf itself is a const pointer which may not be changed. Whatever chars are pointed to by buf may be changed at will.

Finally, the declaration

    char const *const buf;

is also possible; here, neither the pointer nor what it points to may be changed.

The rule of thumb for the placement of the keyword const is the following: whatever occurs just prior to the keyword may not be changed. The definition or declaration in which const is used should be read from the variable or function identifier back to the type indentifier:

``Buf is a const pointer to const characters''

    char const *buf;

What must remain constant here? According to the sloppy interpretation, the pointer cannot be altered (since const precedes the pointer-*). In fact, the charvalues are the constant entities here, as will be clear when it is tried to compile the following program:

    int main()
    {
        char const *buf = "hello";
    
        buf++;                  // accepted by the compiler
        *buf = 'u';             // rejected by the compiler

        return (0);
    }

Compilation fails on the statement *buf = 'u';, not on the statement buf++.

3.1.6: References

    int
        int_value;
    int
        &ref = int_value;

In the above example a variable int_value is defined. Subsequently a reference ref is defined, which due to its initialization addresses the same memory location which int_value occupies. In the definition of ref, the reference operator & indicates that ref is not itself an integer but a reference to one. The two statements

    int_value++;            // alternative 1
    ref++;                  // alternative 2

have the same effect, as expected. At some memory location an int value is increased by one --- whether that location is called int_value or ref does not matter.

References serve an important function in C++ as a means to pass arguments which can be modified (`variable arguments' in Pascal-terms). E.g., in standard C, a function which increases the value of its argument by five but which returns nothing (void), needs a pointer argument:

    void increase(int *valp)        // expects a pointer
    {                               // to an int
        *valp += 5;
    }

    int main()
    {
        int
            x;

        increase(&x)                // the address of x is
        return (0);                 // passed as argument
    }

This construction can also be used in C++ but the same effect can be achieved using a reference:

    void increase(int &valr)            // expects a reference
    {                                   // to an int
        valr += 5;
    }

    int main()
    {
        int
            x;

        increase(x);                    // a reference to x is 
        return (0);                     // passed as argument
    }

The way in which C++ compilers implement references is actually by using pointers: in other words, references in C++ are just ordinary pointers, as far as the compiler is concerned. However, the programmer does not need to know or to bother about levels of indirection. (Compare this to the Pascal way: an argument which is declared as var is in fact also a pointer, but the programmer needn't know.)

It can be argued whether code such as the above is clear: the statement increase (x) in the main() function suggests that not x itself but a copy is passed. Yet the value of x changes because of the way increase() is defined.

Our suggestions for the usage of references as arguments to functions are therefore the following:

• In those situations where a called function does not alter its arguments, a copy of the variable can be passed:

  
  

  
          void some_func(int val)
          {
              printf("%d\n", val);
          }
  
          int main()
          {
              int
                  x;
  
              some_func(x);           // a copy is passed, so
              return (0);             // x won't be changed
          }
      
  

  
  

• When a function changes the value of its argument, the address or a reference can be passed, whichever you prefer:

  
  

  
          void by_pointer(int *valp)
          {
              *valp += 5;
          }
  
          void by_reference(int &valr)
          {
              valr += 5;
          }
  
          int main ()
          {
              int
                  x;
  
              by_pointer(&x);             // a pointer is passed
              by_reference(x);            // x is altered by reference
              return (0);                 // x might be changed
          }
      
  

  
  

• References have an important role in those cases where the argument will not be changed by the function, but where it is desirable to pass a reference to the variable instead of a copy of the whole variable. Such a situation occurs when a large variable, e.g., a struct, is passed as argument, or is returned from the function. In these cases the copying operations tend to become significant factors when the entire structure must be copied, and it is preferred to use references. If the argument isn't changed by the function, or if the caller shouldn't change the returned information, the use of the const keyword is appropriate and should be used.

  
  Consider the following example:

  
  

      
      struct Person                       // some large structure
      {
          char
              name [80],
              address [90];
          double
              salary;
      };
              
      Person    
         person[50];                      // database of persons    
  
      void printperson (Person const &p)  // printperson expects a
      {                                   // reference to a structure
          printf ("Name: %s\n"            // but won't change it
                  "Address: %s\n",
          p.name, p.address);
      }
                  
      Person const &getperson(int index)  // get a person by indexvalue    
      {    
          ...
          return (person[index]);         // a reference is returned,    
      }                                   // not a copy of person[index]    
  
      int main ()
      {
          Person
              boss;
  
          printperson (boss);             // no pointer is passed,
                                          // so variable won't be    
                                          // altered by function
          printperson(getperson(5));      // references, not copies
                                          // are passed here
          return (0);
      }
  
  

  
  

• It should furthermore be noted here that there is another reason for using references when passing objects as function arguments: when passing a reference to an object, the activation of a copy constructor is avoided. We have to postpone this argument to chapter 5

  
  

References also can lead to extremely `ugly' code. A function can also return a reference to a variable, as in the following example:

    int &func()
    {
        static int
            value;

        return (value);
    }

This allows the following constructions:

    func() = 20;
    func() += func ();

It is probably superfluous to note that such constructions should not normally be used. Nonetheless, there are situations where it is useful to return a reference. Even though this is discussed later, we have seen an example of this phenomenon at our previous discussion of the iostreams. In a statement like cout << "Hello" << endl;, the insertion operator returns a reference to cout. So, in this statement first the "Hello" is inserted into cout, producing a reference to cout. Via this reference the endl is then inserted in the cout object, again producing a reference to cout. This latter reference is not further used.

A number of differences between pointers and references is pointed out in the list below:

• A reference cannot exist by itself, i.e., without something to refer to. A declaration of a reference like

  
  

  int &ref;

  
  is not allowed; what would ref refer to?

  
  

• References can, however, be declared as external. These references were initialized elsewhere.

  
  

• Reference may exist as parameters of functions: they are initialized when the function is called.

  
  

• References may be used in the return types of functions. In those cases the function determines to what the return value will refer.

  
  

• Reference may be used as data members of classes. We will return to this usage later.

  
  

• In contrast, pointers are variables by themselves. They point at something concrete or just ``at nothing''.

  
  

• References are aliases for other variables and cannot be re-aliased to another variable. Once a reference is defined, it refers to its particular variable.

  
  

• In contrast, pointers can be reassigned to point to different variables.

  
  

• When an address-of operator & is used with a reference, the expression yields the address of the variable to which the reference applies. In contrast, ordinary pointers are variables themselves, so the address of a pointer variable has nothing to do with the address of the variable pointed to.

  
  

3.2: Functions as part of structs

The code fragment below illustrates a struct in which data fields for a name and address are present. A function print() is included in the struct definition:

    struct person
    {
        char
            name [80],
            address [80];
        void
            print (void);
    };

The member function print() is defined using the structure name (person) and the scope resolution operator (::):

    void person::print()
    {
        printf("Name:      %s\n"
               "Address:   %s\n", name, address);
    }

In the definition of this member function, the function name is preceded by the struct name followed by ::. The code of the function shows how the fields of the struct can be addressed without using the type name: in this example the function print() prints a variable name. Since print() is a part of the struct person, the variable name implicitly refers to the same type.

The usage of this struct could be, e.g.:

    person
        p;

    strcpy(p.name, "Karel");
    strcpy(p.address, "Rietveldlaan 37");
    p.print();

The advantage of member functions lies in the fact that the called function can automatically address the data fields of the structure for which it was invoked. As such, in the statement p.print() the structure p is the `substrate': the variables name and address which are used in the code of print() refer to the same struct p.

3.3: Data hiding: public, private and class

C++ has two special keywords which are concerned with data hiding: private and public. These keywords can be inserted in the definition of a struct. The keyword public defines all subsequent fields of a structure as accessible by all code; the keyword private defines all subsequent fields as only accessible by the code which is part of the struct (i.e., only accessible for the member functions) (Besides public and private, C++ defines the keyword protected. This keyword is not often used and it is left for the reader to explore.). In a struct all fields are public, unless explicitly stated otherwise.

With this knowledge we can expand the struct person:

    struct person
    {
        public:
            void
                setname (char const *n),
                setaddress (char const *a),
                print (void);
            char const
                *getname (void),
                *getaddress (void);
        private:
            char
                name [80],
                address [80];
    };

The data fields name and address are only accessible for the member functions which are defined in the struct: these are the functions setname(), setaddress() etc.. This property of the data type is given by the fact that the fields name and address are preceded by the keyword private. As an illustration consider the following code fragment:

    person
        x;

    x.setname ("Frank");        // ok, setname() is public
    strcpy (x.name, "Knarf");   // error, name is private

The concept of data hiding is realized here in the following manner. The actual data of a struct person are named only in the structure definition. The data are accessed by the outside world by special functions, which are also part of the definition. These member functions control all traffic between the data fields and other parts of the program and are therefore also called `interface' functions. The data hiding which is thus realized is illustrated further in figure 2.

figure 2: Private data and public interface functions of the class Person.

Also note that the functions setname() and setaddress() are declared as having a char const * argument. This means that the functions will not alter the strings which are supplied as their arguments. In the same vein, the functions getname() and getaddress() return a char const *: the caller may not modify the strings which are pointed to by the return values.

Two examples of member functions of the struct person are shown below:

    void person::setname(char const *n)
    {
        strncpy(name, n, 79);
        name[79] = '\0';
    }

    char const *person::getname()
    {
        return (name);
    }

In general, the power of the member functions and of the concept of data hiding lies in the fact that the interface functions can perform special tasks, e.g., checks for the validity of data. In the above example setname() copies only up to 79 characters from its argument to the data member name, thereby avoiding array boundary overflow.

Another example of the concept of data hiding is the following. As an alternative to member functions which keep their data in memory (as do the above code examples), a runtime library could be developed with interface functions which store their data on file. The conversion of a program which stores person structures in memory to one that stores the data on disk would mean the relinking of the program with a different library.

Though data hiding can be realized with structs, more often (almost always) classes are used instead. A class is in principle equivalent to a struct except that unless specified otherwise, all members (data or functions) are private. As far as private and public are concerned, a class is therefore the opposite of a struct. The definition of a class person would therefore look exactly as shown above, except for the fact that instead of the keyword struct, class would be used. Our typographic suggestion for class names is a capital as first character, followed by the remainder of the name in lower case (e.g., Person).

3.4: Structs in C vs. structs in C++

    // definition of a struct PERSON_ 
    typedef struct
    {
        char
            name[80],
            address[80];
    } PERSON_;

    // some functions to manipulate PERSON_ structs 

    // initialize fields with a name and address 
    extern void initialize(PERSON_ *p, char const *nm,
                           char const *adr);

    // print information 
    extern void print(PERSON_ const *p);

    // etc.. 

In C++, the declarations of the involved functions are placed inside the definition of the struct or class. The argument which denotes which struct is involved is no longer needed.

    class Person
    {
        public:
            void initialize(char const *nm, char const *adr);
            void print(void);
            // etc..
        private:
            char 
                name[80], 
                address[80];
    };

The struct argument is implicit in C++. A function call in C like

    PERSON_
        x;

    initialize(&x, "some name", "some address");

becomes in C++:

    Person
        x;

    x.initialize("some name", "some address");